Dear Sir

Heardy I aply for any posision in your cumpany. I am ninteen years of age and have now cumpleted grabe ten. I am interristed in people and a motivateb person. I dont have any work ecsperience dut I am wiling to lern.

Yours faitfuly,

George White

When reading the above letter, you might think it was written by someone with low intelligence. You would be mistaken. This person’s intelligence is above average, but he struggles severely with reading and spelling. He has dyslexia.

Many children and adults with dyslexia appear far brighter verbally than their written work suggests. Parents often say things like:

“He can explain it perfectly, but he cannot read it.”
“She studies for hours but remembers very little.”
“His spelling is unbelievable for such a clever child.”

The term dyslexia was introduced in 1884 by the German ophthalmologist Rudolf Berlin. He derived it from the Greek words dys, meaning difficult, and lexis, meaning word. Berlin used the term to describe a specific reading disturbance in individuals who showed no obvious visual impairment or intellectual disability. In later publications, Berlin referred to dyslexia as “word blindness” and described patients who had complete command of spoken language but had lost the ability to read following brain injury.

Over time, however, the term evolved and is now commonly used to describe developmental reading difficulties in children and adults that affect accurate and fluent reading, spelling, decoding, and written language skills. Modern brain imaging studies have shown that dyslexia is neurological in origin and linked to differences in the way the brain processes written language.

Although dyslexia is most commonly associated with severe reading difficulties, there is ongoing debate about its exact definition and distinguishing features from other reading problems. Instead of becoming trapped in debates, it is often more useful for parents and teachers to recognise the symptoms and warning signs.

1. Weaknesses in phonological processing

Phonological processing refers to the use of speech sounds to process spoken and written language. Difficulties in this area are among the most common signs of dyslexia.

Research by neuroscientist Dr Sally Shaywitz has shown that dyslexia is strongly associated with weaknesses in the phonological component of language. In simple terms, many individuals with dyslexia struggle to process and manipulate the sounds within words efficiently.

Symptoms that may indicate weaknesses in phonological processing include:

• Difficulty decoding words, which involves matching letters to sounds.
• Inability to rapidly retrieve letter sounds while analysing words, so that the beginning of the word is already forgotten by the time the last letter is retrieved.
• Trouble blending individual sounds into words. They may sound out letters correctly but still say the wrong word. For example, a child may sound out the letters c-a-t correctly but then say “cold.”
• Vowel sounds may be particularly troublesome.
• Difficulty separating words into individual sounds or syllables.

Modern research has consistently shown that phonological awareness is one of the strongest predictors of later reading success. Weaknesses in this area are therefore important warning signs that should not be ignored.

2. Weaknesses in RAN and word retrieval

Many learners with dyslexia struggle with rapid automatised naming (RAN) — the speed at which familiar information, such as letters, numbers, colours, objects, or words, can be retrieved from long-term memory.

Research has shown that weaknesses in RAN are strongly associated with slow, effortful reading and poor reading fluency. Even when a child knows the correct answer, retrieving it quickly may remain difficult.

Symptoms that may indicate weaknesses in RAN include:

• Slow naming of letters, numbers, colours, or objects.
• Slow, hesitant reading despite adequate decoding ability.
• Difficulty retrieving familiar words during conversation. Learners may say, “It’s on the tip of my tongue,” but are unable to retrieve the correct word quickly.

3. Directional confusion

Directional confusion may take several forms, from being uncertain of left and right to being unable to read a map accurately, says Dr Beve Hornsby in her book Overcoming Dyslexia. A child should generally know left and right by age five and be able to distinguish another person’s left and right by age seven.

Directional confusion affects other concepts as well, such as up and down, top and bottom, compass directions, keeping one’s place while playing games, and copying the gym teacher’s movements when facing them. Hornsby states that as many as eight out of ten severely dyslexic children experience directional confusion. The percentage is lower in those with milder forms of dyslexia.

Directional confusion contributes to reversals of letters, words, or numbers, as well as so-called mirror writing.

The following symptoms may indicate directional confusion:

• Reversing letters such as b and d, or p and q, either when reading or writing.
• Inverting letters, reading or writing n as u, m as w, d as q, p as b, f as t.
• Reading or writing words such as no for on, rat for tar, won for now, saw for was.
• Reading or writing 17 for 71.
• Mirror-writing letters, numbers, or words.

4. Sequencing difficulties

Learners with dyslexia have trouble with sequencing, i.e., perceiving and remembering information in the correct order. Naturally, this affects their ability to read and spell correctly. After all, every word consists of letters arranged in a specific sequence. In order to read, one has to perceive the letters in sequence and remember which word is represented by that sequence of letters. By simply changing the sequence of the letters in a word, it can become mean or amen.

The following are a few dyslexia symptoms that may indicate sequencing difficulties:

• Putting letters in the wrong order and reading felt as left, act as cat, reserve as reverse, and expect as except.
• Putting syllables in the wrong order, reading animal as ‘aminal,’ enemy as ‘emeny.’
• Putting words in the wrong order, reading are there for there are.
• Writing letters in the wrong order, spelling Simon as ‘Siomn,’ time as ‘tiem,’ and child as ‘chidl.’
• Omitting letters, i.e., reading or writing cat for cart, wet for went, sing for string.

Learners with dyslexia may also have difficulty remembering the order of the alphabet and sequences of numbers, for example, telephone numbers, the months of the year, the seasons, and the sequence of daily events. Younger children may also find it difficult to remember the days of the week. Some cannot repeat longer words aloud without getting the syllables in the wrong order, such as preliminary and statistical.

Learners with dyslexia may also struggle to follow multi-step instructions or remember information in the correct order. For example, a teacher may say:

“Take out your workbook, open to page 15, underline the heading, and answer questions 1–5.”

By the time the learner reaches the third instruction, they may have already forgotten the first.

5. Delayed speech development

Research has consistently shown a strong relationship between delayed speech and language development and later reading difficulties, including dyslexia. The following are just a few examples:

• A 1970 study by Dr Renate Valtin of Germany, based on one hundred pairs of children with and without dyslexia, found delayed speech development and a higher frequency of speech disorders among children with dyslexia.

• According to Dr Beve Hornsby, author of Overcoming Dyslexia, approximately 60 percent of children with dyslexia were late talkers.

• In her book Learning Disabilities, Janet Lerner states, “Language problems of one form or another are the underlying basis for many learning disabilities. Oral language disorders include poor phonological awareness, delayed speech, disorders of grammar or syntax, deficiencies in vocabulary acquisition, and poor understanding of oral language.”

• More recent longitudinal research has reached similar conclusions. Children with delayed speech and language development, speech sound difficulties, and poor phonological awareness during the preschool years are at a significantly greater risk of developing later reading difficulties, including dyslexia. These findings highlight the importance of recognising speech and language delays early and providing appropriate intervention.

In most cases, babies begin to understand simple words and commands by about nine months of age. Around their first birthday, they usually say their first words. By the age of two, they typically have a vocabulary of up to 200 words and use simple two-word phrases such as “drink milk.” By the age of three, their vocabulary may increase to about 900 words, and they should be speaking in complete sentences without omitting words. Although they may still confuse some consonants, their speech should be understandable to strangers. By the age of four, they should be able to communicate fluently, although grammatical errors may still occur.

If a child continues to speak immaturely or makes unexpected grammatical errors at the age of five, this may be an early warning sign of later reading difficulties. Parents should seek advice and, where necessary, intervention to support the child’s language development.

6. Reading fluency and comprehension difficulties

One of the most obvious signs of dyslexia is slow, effortful reading. Many learners can eventually work out the words on a page, but by the time they reach the end of a sentence or paragraph, they have forgotten what they have read.

The following are indications of difficulties with reading fluency and comprehension:

• Reads slowly and hesitantly.
• Reads word by word instead of in meaningful phrases.
• Frequently loses their place or skips lines while reading.
• Has to reread sentences or paragraphs to understand their meaning.
• Reads accurately but struggles to explain what has been read.
• Becomes mentally tired after reading for only a short time.
• Avoids reading whenever possible.

Research has shown that reading fluency is more than reading accurately. It also requires automatic word recognition, appropriate speed, and expressive reading. When reading remains slow and effortful, much of the learner’s mental energy is devoted to recognising individual words, leaving fewer cognitive resources available for understanding the text.

Poor reading comprehension is therefore often the result of slow, effortful reading rather than poor intelligence.

7. Difficulties with little words

A frequent comment made by parents of children struggling with their reading is, “He is so careless; he gets the big difficult words but keeps making silly mistakes on all the little ones.” Certainly, the poor reader gets stuck on difficult words, but many seem to make things worse by making mistakes on simple words they should be able to manage—like if, to, and and.

These little words occur so frequently in written language that skilled readers recognise them automatically. Learners with dyslexia often struggle to recognise them with the same automaticity.

The following are indications of difficulties with little words:

• Misreads little words, such as a for and, the for a, from for for, then for there, and were for with.
• Omits or reads twice little words such as the, and, but, and in.
• Adds little words that do not appear in the text.

It is important to note that this is extremely common in dyslexia and is not a sign that a child is careless or lazy.

8. Spelling difficulties

Spelling is one of the greatest challenges faced by many learners with dyslexia. Parents often say, “He can spell the same word correctly one minute and incorrectly the next.” This inconsistency is one of the hallmarks of dyslexia.

The following are indications of spelling difficulties:

• Spells the same word differently on the same page.
• Spells words phonetically, such as sed for said, nite for night, or frend for friend.
• Omits, adds, substitutes, or transposes letters within words.
• Has persistent difficulty remembering common spelling patterns and irregular words.
• Continues to make spelling errors despite repeated practice.

Modern research has shown that accurate spelling depends on the development of stable mental representations of words, a process known as orthographic mapping. Because this process is often less efficient in learners with dyslexia, they may continue to struggle with spelling long after they have learned to read.

Poor spelling is not a sign of carelessness or low intelligence. It is one of the most persistent characteristics of dyslexia and often remains a challenge into adulthood.

9. Difficulties with handwriting

Some learners with dyslexia also experience handwriting difficulties. The term dysgraphia is often used to describe severe and persistent difficulties with handwriting and written expression.

Symptoms that may indicate handwriting difficulties include:

• Generally illegible handwriting.
• Inconsistent letter formation.
• A mixture of upper- and lower-case letters, or print and cursive writing.
• Irregular letter sizes and shapes.
• Unfinished or poorly formed letters.
• Difficulty using writing as an effective means of communication.

Handwriting difficulties may make it difficult for learners to express their knowledge in writing, even when they understand the material. As a result, their written work may not accurately reflect their true ability.

Today, many learners rely on computers, tablets, and spellcheckers to compensate for handwriting difficulties. While technology can be helpful, it may also mask underlying writing problems rather than address them.

10. Difficulties with mathematics

The language of mathematics is often poorly understood by learners with dyslexia, particularly during the primary school years. Some learners also have dyscalculia, a specific learning difficulty that affects the understanding of numbers and mathematical concepts. Although dyslexia and dyscalculia are separate conditions, they frequently occur together.

Difficulties with mathematics may be identified by the following symptoms:

• Difficulty with numbers and calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• Confusion between similar-looking mathematical symbols, such as + and ×, −, ÷, and =, or < (less than) and > (greater than).
• Difficulty understanding that words such as difference, reduction, and minus all indicate subtraction.
• Understanding the instruction add, but becoming confused when asked to find the total.
• Reversing numbers, reading or writing 17 for 71.
• Transposing numbers, for example writing 752 as 572.
• Difficulty with mental arithmetic.
• Difficulty telling the time.

It is important to remember that not every learner with dyslexia has dyscalculia. However, difficulties with mathematical language, symbols, and number concepts are common and should be recognised as possible signs of an underlying learning difficulty.

When to seek help

If you recognise many of the signs described in this article, it may be worthwhile to investigate further. While no single symptom is sufficient to diagnose dyslexia, a pattern of persistent reading, spelling, writing, or language difficulties should not be ignored.

Dyslexia is one of the most researched learning difficulties in the world, and effective help is available. The sooner the underlying difficulties are identified, the sooner appropriate support can begin.

If you are concerned about your child, student, or even yourself, we invite you to contact us. We will gladly discuss your concerns and help you determine the most appropriate next step.

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